Ground reference maneuvers teach the single most useful skill in low-altitude flying: correcting for wind so the airplane follows a precise path over the ground. Turns around a point, S-turns across a road, and the rectangular course all train you to see the wind, anticipate its effect, and adjust your bank and heading to hold a constant ground track. The wind correction you learn here is exactly what you use flying the traffic pattern and a crosswind approach.
Part of our Flight Maneuvers guide. This page is educational and is not a substitute for instruction from a certificated flight instructor.
The purpose: wind correction and ground track
An airplane flies through a moving mass of air, so the wind constantly pushes it off the path you intend over the ground. To hold a constant ground track you crab into the wind, turning the nose upwind by the right amount and changing that amount as your direction relative to the wind changes. In a turn, this means continuously varying your bank angle: steepest when the airplane is moving with a tailwind and groundspeed is highest, shallowest when it is moving into the wind and groundspeed is lowest. Learning to feel and apply this correction is the whole point of the maneuvers.
Altitude for ground reference maneuvers
These maneuvers are flown low enough that wind drift is obvious against ground features, but high enough to stay safe. Ground reference maneuvers are typically flown at 600 to 1000 feet AGL. That altitude keeps a recognizable ground reference clearly in view while leaving room to recover, and it is consistent with the FAA Airplane Flying Handbook. You divide your attention between the reference on the ground, the airplane’s track, and a good lookout for other traffic.
Turns around a point
In turns around a point you fly a constant-radius circle around a fixed point on the ground, holding altitude. Because the wind keeps trying to push you away from the circle, you must vary your bank continuously: steepen the bank where groundspeed is highest (downwind) and shallow it where groundspeed is lowest (into the wind). Done well, the airplane traces a perfect circle over the ground even though the bank angle is always changing.
S-turns across a road
S-turns have you fly a series of equal half-circles on alternating sides of a straight line, such as a road, crossing the line with wings level each time. As with turns around a point, you vary the bank throughout each half-circle to keep the two halves the same size and shape despite the wind. This drills smooth, varying wind correction and good timing of your rollouts on the line.
Rectangular course
The rectangular course has you fly a track that parallels the sides of a rectangular field at a constant distance, holding altitude. Each leg requires a different wind correction angle, and each turn between legs requires a different bank, depending on whether you are turning from a headwind to a crosswind leg or from a tailwind to a crosswind leg. The rectangular course is essentially flying a traffic pattern, which is why it transfers so directly to real pattern work and to a crosswind landing.
Putting it together
Every ground reference maneuver is really one lesson taught three ways: the airplane moves with the air, so you correct for the wind to control where it goes over the ground. That skill underlies the traffic pattern, the crosswind approach, and the precise path control you will use as a certificated pilot. Fly them coordinated, keep your altitude, and keep a sharp lookout. They are a standard part of preparing for the checkride.
Study tools
What you'll need
The FAA handbooks that teach the maneuvers, all from PilotMall.com.
Frequently asked questions
What is the purpose of ground reference maneuvers?
They teach you to correct for wind so the airplane holds a constant, precise track over the ground. You crab into the wind and vary your bank to counter drift, which is the same skill you use in the traffic pattern and on a crosswind approach.
What altitude are ground reference maneuvers flown at?
They are typically flown at 600 to 1000 feet AGL, low enough that wind drift is obvious against ground features but high enough to stay safe and keep a good lookout for traffic.
Why do you vary the bank angle in turns around a point?
Because groundspeed changes as you turn relative to the wind. You steepen the bank where groundspeed is highest, on the downwind side, and shallow it where groundspeed is lowest, into the wind, to trace a constant-radius circle.
What are the three main ground reference maneuvers?
Turns around a point, S-turns across a road, and the rectangular course. All three train wind correction to hold a constant ground track, and the rectangular course is essentially flying a traffic pattern.