V-speeds are the standard airspeeds, written as a V with a subscript, that define how a particular airplane is flown: stall speeds (VS0, VS1), climb speeds (VX, VY), structural limits (VA, VNO, VNE) and flap and landing gear limits (VFE, VLO, VLE). The symbols are defined in 14 CFR 1.2, the key ones are color-coded on your airspeed indicator, and your airplane’s numbers come from its Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH).
Part of our How Airplanes Work guide. Flying a Skyhawk? The model-by-model numbers are in our Cessna 172 V-speeds guide.
Where V-speeds come from
The FAA defines the symbols in 14 CFR 1.2 and explains them in the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (PHAK, FAA-H-8083-25C) and the Airplane Flying Handbook (AFH, FAA-H-8083-3C). The manufacturer supplies the numbers: airspeed limits sit in POH Section 2 (Limitations) with the instrument markings and placards, and Section 4 (Normal Procedures) opens with the airspeeds for normal operations. Our POH guide covers the full layout.
- They are indicated airspeeds. The PHAK notes that POH takeoff, landing and stall speeds are indicated airspeeds (IAS) that do not normally vary with altitude or temperature, so you fly the same numbers at a mountain airport. Your true airspeed is what changes.
- Some dials read calibrated airspeed or mph. The PHAK says the color markings may be IAS or calibrated airspeed (CAS). The FAA type certificate data sheet shows that 1976 through 1984 Skyhawks (172M, 172N and 172P) are marked in CAS, with the conversion in the POH’s airspeed calibration table, and older airplanes may read in miles per hour.
- Subscripts vary in print. 14 CFR 1.2 writes the landing-configuration stall speed with a zero (VS0); many FAA books use the letter O (VSO). Same speed.
The V-speeds every student pilot should know
Definitions follow 14 CFR 1.2 and the PHAK. The last column shows where each speed appears on a standard round airspeed indicator.
| Symbol | Name | What it means for you | On the dial |
|---|---|---|---|
| VS0 | Stall speed, landing configuration | In small airplanes, the power-off stall speed at maximum landing weight, gear and flaps down. | White arc bottom |
| VS1 | Stall speed, specified configuration | For most airplanes, power off at maximum takeoff weight, flaps and gear up. | Green arc bottom |
| VR | Rotation speed | Where you raise the nose to lift off. | Not marked |
| VX | Best angle of climb | Most altitude in a given distance; clears obstacles after a short-field takeoff. | Not marked |
| VY | Best rate of climb | Most altitude in a given time; your normal climb after liftoff. | Not marked |
| VA | Design maneuvering speed | Highest speed for one full control deflection in one axis, and your rough-air speed. Drops with weight. | Not marked (POH, placards) |
| VFE | Maximum flap extended speed | Highest speed with flaps in a prescribed extended position. | White arc top |
| VNO | Maximum structural cruising speed | Do not exceed except in smooth air. | Green arc top |
| VNE | Never-exceed speed | Prohibited above it; damage or structural failure may result. | Red line |
| VLO | Maximum landing gear operating speed | Highest speed for extending or retracting the gear. | Not marked |
| VLE | Maximum landing gear extended speed | Highest speed with the gear extended. | Not marked |
| VREF | Reference landing speed | Final approach reference, normally 1.3 times VS0 per the AFH. | Not marked |
The climb speeds move with altitude: the PHAK notes that VX normally increases slightly and VY decreases slightly as you climb, until they meet at the absolute ceiling. On the private pilot practical test you hold VY within +10/-5 knots after a normal takeoff, and VX or the recommended obstacle clearance speed within +10/-5 knots on a short-field takeoff.
Stall speed also has legal weight. Under 14 CFR 61.316, as amended by the FAA’s 2025 MOSAIC rule, a sport pilot may fly an airplane whose VS1 is no more than 59 knots CAS at maximum takeoff weight and most critical center of gravity.
How the airspeed indicator shows V-speeds
According to the PHAK, FAA-certificated airplanes of 12,500 pounds or less built after 1945 must have airspeed indicators marked with a standard color code.
- White arc, VS0 to VFE: the flap operating range, where approaches and landings are usually flown.
- Green arc, VS1 to VNO: the normal operating range.
- Yellow arc, VNO to VNE: the caution range, for smooth air only and then only with caution.
- Red line, VNE: the never-exceed speed.
- Light twins: a red radial line at VMC and a blue radial line at VYSE.
Two cautions. For most airplanes the arc bottoms are power-off, 1 G stall speeds at maximum weight, and the PHAK warns that a published 1 G stall speed holds only in unaccelerated, coordinated flight at one weight; in a bank the real stall speed rises with the square root of the load factor, as our stalls guide explains. And VA, VX and VY are not on a round dial at all, though the PHAK notes that glass-cockpit airspeed tapes display references for VR, VX and VY. All of it depends on a healthy pitot-static system.
Maneuvering speed (VA) and why it drops when you are light
14 CFR 1.2 calls VA the design maneuvering speed. The current PHAK defines it as the speed below which you can move a single flight control, one time, to its full deflection, for one axis of rotation (pitch, roll or yaw), in smooth air, without risk of damage. It does not protect against full inputs in more than one axis at once or repeated full inputs in one axis, and the PHAK warns that rapid, large, alternating inputs can cause structural failure at any speed, even below VA.
VA is also your turbulence speed: the PHAK advises slowing to it in extremely rough air and notes that never-exceed speeds assume smooth air. On the checkride, steep turns are flown at the manufacturer’s recommended airspeed or, if none is published, at no more than VA.
In rough air: slow to VA for your weight or below and make small, smooth corrections. Large, alternating control inputs overstress airplanes even below VA.
Why a lighter airplane has a lower VA
Load factor is the ratio of lift to weight; a load factor of 3 means the structure carries three times the airplane’s weight. Below VA, the wing reaches its critical angle of attack and stalls before it can make enough lift to exceed the limit load factor, so the stall protects the structure. A lighter airplane stalls at a lower airspeed, and the same pull or gust produces more G on less weight, so the speed at which the stall still arrives in time is lower. The FAA’s own example: VA of 100 knots when heavily loaded, but only 90 knots when the load is light.
The change follows the square root of weight, the same relationship behind stall and liftoff speeds; the PHAK notes that a 21 percent increase in takeoff weight requires about a 10 percent increase in liftoff speed. In reverse, an airplane about 20 percent below maximum weight has a VA roughly 10 percent lower. The FAA type certificate data sheet for the Cessna 172S lists a single maneuvering speed, 105 knots indicated, so look to your POH for lower-weight values and work your weight and balance to know which applies.
Approach and glide speeds
Fly the POH approach speed when there is one. When there is not, the AFH calls for 1.3 times VS0 on final after about 1.4 times VS0 on base; with a VS0 of 60 knots, that is 78 knots on final. The private pilot standard matches: the published approach speed or, without one, not more than 1.3 VS0, within +10/-5 knots with the gust factor applied.
Best glide speed gives the greatest distance for the altitude you lose in still air. The AFH explains that it occurs at the maximum lift-to-drag ratio, that any faster or slower speed shortens the glide, and that you must never stretch a glide by pulling the nose up below best glide. Minimum sink speed, a few knots slower and rarely published, keeps you aloft longest but covers less ground. On the checkride you hold best glide within 10 knots during a simulated engine failure.
Best glide has no symbol in 14 CFR 1.2 or in the PHAK and AFH glossaries, so treat VG as shorthand. Don’t confuse it with the PHAK’s V-G diagram, which plots airspeed against load factor.
Twin-engine V-speeds: the red line and the blue line
Multiengine airplanes add one-engine-inoperative speeds. Only VMC appears in 14 CFR 1.2; the AFH defines the rest.
- VMC, minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative: a red radial line on most airspeed indicators. The AFH stresses that real VMC varies with conditions and technique.
- VYSE, best rate of climb on one engine: the blue radial line, commonly called blue line, set for maximum weight at sea level according to the PHAK.
- VXSE, best angle of climb on one engine.
- VSSE, the safe, intentional one-engine-inoperative speed: the minimum speed for deliberately making the critical engine inoperative.
You will fly all four if you add a multi-engine rating.
Printable V-speed card
Print this card, write in your airplane’s numbers from its POH, and keep it on your kneeboard. The private pilot ACS lists VX and VY as required knowledge for the takeoff tasks; our checkride guide covers the rest of the test.
| Speed | Meaning | My airplane |
|---|---|---|
| VS0 | Stall, landing configuration (white arc bottom) | |
| VS1 | Stall, clean (green arc bottom) | |
| VR | Rotation | |
| VX | Best angle of climb | |
| VY | Best rate of climb | |
| VA | Maneuvering speed at my weight | |
| VFE | Maximum flaps extended (white arc top) | |
| VNO | Maximum structural cruising (green arc top) | |
| VNE | Never exceed (red line) | |
| Best glide | Greatest glide distance | |
| Approach | POH speed, or 1.3 x VS0 |
What you'll need
The FAA handbooks that define these speeds, a Skyhawk checklist card that lists them, and a flight computer for true airspeed, from PilotMall.com.
Frequently asked questions
What are V-speeds?
V-speeds are standardized airspeeds, written as a V with a subscript, that define how a specific airplane is flown, such as VS0 (stall speed in the landing configuration), VY (best rate of climb), VA (maneuvering speed) and VNE (never-exceed speed). The symbols are defined in 14 CFR 1.2, and your airplane’s numbers are in its POH.
What is the difference between VX and VY?
VX, best angle of climb, gives the most altitude in a given distance, so you use it to clear an obstacle after a short-field takeoff. VY, best rate of climb, gives the most altitude in a given time and is your normal climb speed. VX is the slower of the two, and they converge as altitude increases.
Why does maneuvering speed decrease as weight decreases?
Below VA, the wing stalls before it can make enough lift to exceed the limit load factor. A lighter airplane stalls at a lower airspeed, and the same pull or gust produces more G on less weight, so the protective speed is lower. The FAA’s example is a VA of 100 knots when heavily loaded but 90 knots when the load is light.
What do the colored arcs on an airspeed indicator mean?
The white arc is the flap operating range, from VS0 to VFE. The green arc is the normal operating range, from VS1 to VNO. The yellow arc, from VNO to VNE, is the caution range for smooth air only, and the red line is VNE. Light twins add a red radial line at VMC and a blue radial line at VYSE.
Is best glide speed (VG) an official V-speed?
No. Best glide speed has no symbol in 14 CFR 1.2, and the PHAK and Airplane Flying Handbook glossaries do not assign it one, so VG is shorthand. Your POH gives the best glide speed, and on the private pilot checkride you must hold it within 10 knots during a simulated engine failure.
Are V-speeds indicated or calibrated airspeeds?
The speeds you fly from the POH, such as takeoff, landing and stall speeds, are normally indicated airspeeds that do not change with altitude or temperature. Some airplanes, including 1976 through 1984 Cessna 172M, 172N and 172P Skyhawks, have airspeed indicators marked in calibrated airspeed, so check the POH’s airspeed calibration table.